By Cong Yao, 18th September 2025
The term "digital divide" has traditionally described the gap in access to information and communication technologies (ICTs). Initial policy responses, therefore, focused primarily on infrastructural deployment to ensure physical connectivity. However, as internet penetration has increased across developed economies, the nature of the divide has fundamentally evolved. Contemporary research conceptualizes a tripartite model: the first-level divide (access), the second-level divide (skills and usage), and the third-level divide (the tangible outcomes and benefits derived from usage). This evolution necessitates a paradigm shift in policy, from a narrow focus on infrastructure to a comprehensive, human rights-based framework that centers on digital literacy as a prerequisite for meaningful participation in the digital society.
The Evolving Dimensions of Digital Exclusion
The characterization of the digital divide as a simple binary of access is now obsolete. In regions with widespread broadband availability, disparities persist and are often exacerbated by variances in digital capability. Vulnerable populations—including the elderly, individuals with low socioeconomic status, and those with disabilities—frequently experience digital exclusion not from a lack of access, but from a deficit in the skills, confidence, or motivation required for effective engagement. This skills-based divide inhibits the realization of digital potential, preventing individuals from leveraging technology for educational advancement, economic opportunity, and civic participation.
Consequently, the core challenge has shifted from ensuring mere connectivity to fostering digital literacy. UNESCO (2018) defines this not merely as technical proficiency, but as a transversal competency encompassing the "awareness, attitude, and ability" to use digital tools to evaluate information, create knowledge, and communicate effectively. It is the critical enabler that transforms access into agency.
Digital Literacy as a Multifaceted Competency
A robust understanding of digital literacy extends beyond operational skills to include three critical dimensions:
1. Critical Information Literacy: The capacity to critically assess the veracity and bias of online information is paramount. The proliferation of disinformation, particularly evident during the COVID-19 infodemic, underscores the necessity of this competency for informed citizenship and personal decision-making.
2. Data Privacy and Security Awareness: As personal data becomes a valuable commodity, literacy must include an understanding of data rights and risks. Regulations like the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) grant individuals control over their data, but exercising these rights requires a foundational awareness of how data is collected, processed, and traded.
3. Civic Digital Engagement: Digital literacy facilitates participation in the digital public sphere. E-government services and online democratic forums offer new avenues for engagement, yet their benefits are only actualized by a citizenry possessing the skills to navigate these platforms effectively and safely.
Anchoring Digital Equity in a Human Rights Framework
The recognition of digital inclusion as a matter of social justice is now enshrined in international discourse. The United Nations Human Rights Council (2016) declared internet access a human right, integral to the realization of freedom of opinion and expression. This foundation has been expanded upon by frameworks that articulate a holistic set of digital rights. The United Nations Alliance for Universal Digital Rights (2023) and the European Declaration on Digital Rights and Principles (European Commission, 2022) propose a structure built upon three interdependent pillars:
• The Right to Provision: This entails the right to universal, affordable, and high-quality digital infrastructure, including inclusive design principles that accommodate diverse linguistic, cultural, and physical abilities.
• The Right to Participation: This ensures the right to engage in socio-economic and civic life through digital means. It encompasses self-determination online, freedom of expression, and protections against algorithmic manipulation, as advanced by legislation like the Digital Markets Act (DMA) and Digital Services Act (DSA) (European Union, 2022a, 2022b).
• The Right to Protection: This guarantees safety and security in digital environments. It includes the right to data protection, privacy, and freedom from online harm, imposing a duty of care upon both states and corporations to create secure and accountable digital ecosystems.
This framework moves the policy objective from charitable inclusion to the enforceable entitlement of rights, positioning the individual as a rights-holder rather than a passive beneficiary.
Addressing the Policy Imbalance
A significant impediment to digital equity is the persistent policy imbalance that prioritizes infrastructural investment over educational and regulatory measures. While building networks is essential, it is insufficient. A connection without competence creates vulnerability, not opportunity. Effective policy must therefore integrate three strands: infrastructure, education, and protection. The EU’s Digital Education Action Plan (2021-2027) represents a step in this direction, aiming to enhance digital competencies across the population with a specific focus on equity and inclusion.
Conclusion
The digital divide is no longer an issue of connectivity but of capability and rights. Addressing its contemporary manifestations requires a nuanced policy approach that anchors digital inclusion within a human rights framework. By reconceptualizing digital literacy as a fundamental enabler of the rights to provision, participation, and protection, policymakers can ensure that digital transformation fosters genuine equity, empowers all citizens, and leaves no one behind. Future efforts must involve sustained multi-stakeholder collaboration to develop robust metrics for digital literacy, implement targeted educational initiatives, and uphold the legal and ethical standards necessary for a truly inclusive digital society.
Image created by Dall-E. Figure created by the author.
